Inca

The **Inca civilization** began as a tribe in the [|Cusco] area, where the legendary first [|Sapa Inca] [|Manco Capac] founded the [|Kingdom of Cusco] around 1200.[|[1]] Under the leadership of the descendants of Manco Capac, the state grew as it absorbed other Andean communities at that time. It was in 1442, when the Incas began a far reaching expansion under the command of [|Pachacutec], whose name literally meant //earth-shaker//. He formed the [|Inca empire] (//Tawantinsuyu//), that would become the largest empire in [|pre-Columbian] America.[|[2]] After the [|civil war] in the Incan empire between the brothers [|Huascar] and [|Atahualpa], the Spanish conquerors led by [|Francisco Pizarro] conquered the Inca territory in [|1533].[|[3]] In the following years the [|conquistadors] managed to consolidate their power over the whole Andean region, repressing successive Inca rebellions until the establishment of the [|Viceroyalty of Perú] in [|1542] and the fall of the resistance of the last Incas of [|Vilcabamba] in [|1572]. The Inca civilization ends at that time, but some cultural traditions remain in some ethnic groups as [|Quechuas] and [|Aymara] people. Pasted from 

Machu Picchu: //image source: http://www.jaunted.com/files/7156/Machu_Picchu__Peru_2.jpg//

HOW WAS IT THAT THE SPANISH "FORGOT" ABOUT THIS FORTRESS SITE??? (Mr G) Forgotten for centuries, the site was brought to worldwide attention in 1911 by [|Hiram Bingham], an American historian. Since then, Machu Picchu has become an important tourist attraction. It was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO [|World Heritage Site] in 1983. It is also one of the [|New Seven Wonders of the World]. Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished [|dry-stone walls]. Its primary buildings are the// Intihuatana//, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. These are located in what is known by archaeologists as the Sacred District of Machu Picchu. In September of 2007, Peru and [|Yale University] reached an agreement regarding the return of artifacts which Hiram Bingham had removed from Machu Picchu in the early 20th century. Currently, there are concerns about the impact of tourism on the site as it reached 400,000 visitors in 2003. Pasted from 
 * Machu Picchu** ([|Quechua]:// Machu Picchu//, "Old mountain") is a [|pre-Columbian] [|Inca] site located 2,400 meters (7,875 ft) above sea level[|[1]]. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the [|Urubamba Valley] in [|Peru], which is 80 km (50 mi) northwest of [|Cusco]. Often referred to as "The Lost City of the Incas", Machu Picchu is probably the most familiar symbol of the [|Inca Empire]. It was built around the year 1450, but abandoned a hundred years later, at the time of the [|Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire].

Machu Picchu (3 pictures below from Taelor Rubin) This is just another image of Machu Picchu. This is an aerial image of Machu Picchu. ^ This is a layout map of Machu Picchu. ^

Inca Rulers Page (Alex E.)

**Machu Picchu** (By Laura R.): This site has amazing pictures at the end. My favorite picture is probably the one of the road going up to the city. The road is winding up the side of a mountain. To me, that suggests a decent amount of intelligence because the Incans knew they couldn't just build a road straight up the side of a mountain. The site mentions that the building bricks they used were very heavy. I would like to know what technology they used to create buildings with blocks that weighed 50 tons. Machu Picchu was possibly used as a place to train female nobles. The primary function was an "astronomical observatory." It was a place of ceremonies that revolved around the location of the sun. http://www.sacredsites.com/americas/peru/machu_picchu.html

The video linked below was taken from a train by a person taking a tour in the Machu Picchu area. It is fairly long, so I did not see all of it. I did not listen to the narration, either, but it has some very good images of the area. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UbBu8Sikhtc

The site below (I can not get the hyperlink to work, but it should work if you copy and paste the link) is an article from a British newspaper about Machu Picchu. It was a city formed to celebrate the defeat of another tribe. In 1912, a historian from Yale led an expedition to Machu Picchu. Many artifacts are still at Yale today. New evidence supports that in 1867, many artifacts were removed from Machu Picchu by Augusto Berns, a German explorer. He tried to start a gold rush, and he sold many of the artifacts he found. He also claimed to have the support of the government. At the time, what he had done was not seen as wrong. Things like that were happening everywhere. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/peru/2064512/Machu-Picchu-'ransacked-40-years-before-its-discovery'.html

This link goes to a map that shows where Machu Picchu is in South America. Machu Picchu is in Peru, which is on the western part of South America. http://www.southernexplorations.com/img/mapPeruTripMachuPicchuColcaCanyon01.jpg The symbols on the map are explained on a key on the main website. They relate to different attractions and activities in the area. The link below goes to the main site for the tour. http://www.southernexplorations.com/peru-MachuPicchuColcaCanyon.htm


 * Laura R.*

Incan Roads

The Inca created a an amazing systems of roads spanning their empire. At the height of the empire, the road network spanned nearly 22,500 km and gave access to nearly 3 million square kilometers. This road system was particularly amazing because it was constructed through some of the most inhospitable land in the world.

The roads were constructed through the Andes, which is one of the biggest mountain ranges in the world. At 7,000 km (4,400 miles) long, 500 km (300 miles) wide in some parts (widest between 18° to 20°S latitude), and having an average height of about 4,000 m (13,000 ft), it truly is a very majestic mountain range.

It also happens to be rather difficult to build roads in…

Nevertheless the Inca accomplished this astonishing achievement and some of the roads still survive to this day. The roads themselves reached heights of over 16,000 feet! That is higher than most ski resorts today. In order to bridge the huge valleys which the trails crossed, Rope Bridges were used.

Another interesting fact about the Inca is that they didn't have the use of the wheel. The Inca didn't know of the wheel until the Spanish arrived. Therefore the roads were largely used for foot traffic as opposed to freight. However, freight was carried on pack animals such as Llamas.

In addition, to cater to the thousands who traveled the roads, nearly 2,000 inn were built along the trails. They were spaced at even intervals (now that is good planning, seems that we can't do that in the US) and provided food, water and shelter to the thousands who traveled the roads. In addition, many inns and towns would have llama corrals to store the llamas that people had. The inns also carried many provisions so that one could stock up before beginning their travels again.

The roads were originally used as post roads, and were used by the Inca people to relay messages from one end of the empire to the other. The runners (known as Chasqui) were highly agile and well-trained. They worked in relay teams (like the Pony Express in the US) and messages were delivered very quickly as a result. Working in relay teams, the Chasqui could move a message as much as 150 miles in one day (running at an average speed of 12.5 miles per hour). In addition, villagers would plant fruit trees along the trails which were watered by irrigation ditches. These trees would provide a welcome refreshment for the chasqui on his run.

When the Spanish arrived in the Incan Empire, they had a very easy time finding the Incan Capital of Cusco. Due to the design of the roads, the majority of them led to the Incan Capital of Cusco. However, because the trails were so narrow, the Spanish and their horses had a very difficult time traversing the trails.

In conclusion, perhaps the best known Incan Road would be the Camino Real, which starts in Quito, Ecuador and ends in Tucuman, Argentina. This roads is 3,230 miles long and traveled through the Andes sometimes reaching heights of 5,000m. This trail, along with the El Camino de la Costa (The Coastal Trail, which ran parallel to the sea was 2,420 miles long and was linked to the Camino Real through many alternative trails) proves that the Incan Road System was one of the Inca's greatest achievements.

Sources-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incan_roads

http://incas.mrdonn.org/roads.html

~Harry (or The Brit, depending on the day)

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47448/education http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_education http://si.unm.edu/abq_2001/jwolfe/jwolfe_tl/inca_tl.html Theocracy - a society in which "god or gods" is the supreme ruler No written language --> the communication of the culture was purely oral --> traditions, history, ideas, stories, etc. were passed down orally from generation to generation When it comes to education --> there are two different types --> Education of the upper class --> Education of the lower class They were not at all equal Education of the upper class --> 4 year education with a well set out plan for what they learn 4th Year - An assortment of different subjects --> Including Astronomy, Geography, History, and Geometry *More information about Quipus follow this link: [|http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9062304/quipu]>
 * __Inca Education__**
 * 1st year - Language** --> The student learns Quechua (but there is no one language, Quechua had many different dialects, so it might be different from region to region)
 * 2nd year - Religion** --> http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/latam/inca.html
 * 3rd year- quipus*** --> The Quipus are "a complex system of knotted colored strings or cords used for sending messages and recording historical events" [|http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47448/education]>[[image:http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2005/08/16/science/16inca.1.650.jpg caption="quipus"]]

Education of the Lower Class - There really wasn't much formal education that the lower classes could recieve. Instead, they were taught by their elders about different topics. Instead of learning about Quipus, people in hte lower class might learn more about farming from their parents or grandparents. Everything taught to the lower class was taught orally.

Here is a great site that has information about the background of the Incas, what they wore in battle vs. what their enemies wore in battle (especially referring to battles against spanish invaders), and what their graves can tell us about them. It is interactive and pretty intresting http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/inca>  If you are intrested in the __**sacifices**__ that the Incas made this site http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/peru/worlds/sacrifice1.html is a good one. Even though not too much is known about the sacrifices, they know enough to get a rough estimate of what happened. A child (usually the son/daughter of a Priest or Emperor) was chosen to be sacrificed. They would lead the child up to the high point on a mountain, where " the sacrificial platforms would be under construction and the burial site being prepared. The platforms were large retaining walls built of stone that formed a large tomb-like interior". Here they would feed the child and alcohol type drink to ease the pain. And the Child would be killed and sent to the next life. Sacrifices generally happened after a disaster, such as an earthquake, drought, or even the death of someone important. This is a picture of wall high up on a mountain, probably one of the platforms. Image sources is the same site as above

-maggie (from education to picture)

Pre-Columbian Gold Ian Fincham Pre-Columbian gold can be described as gold adornments made in Central and South America prior to Columbus’ discovery of the New World in 1492. For three thousand years, from 1500 BC to 1500 AD, different cultures in Peru, Ecuador, Columbia, Costa Rica, Panama and Mexico made ornate gold adornments. Wherever they were made the goldsmiths treated the gold with respect. They felt gold was “the sweat of the sun” and silver was “the tears of the moon”.

Even though there were many cultures in many different regions were goldsmiths worked with gold there were many similarities among them. They all fashioned objects out of gold that they found in their environment. Among some of the items discovered were frogs, birds, snakes, fish, turtles, deer, jaguars, shells, lizards, flowers and monkeys. Their human figures could be women with children, warriors, musicians, or priests. They crafted golden head-dresses, breast plates and masks. The degree of detail ranged from very simple to extremely ornate. Though separated by many miles and sometimes continents apart, with no knowledge of each other, Pre-Columbian goldsmiths amazingly developed the same techniques for working gold. The different techniques for gold work evolved over time. The first, and most primitive, technique was hammering. Artisans beat gold into flat pieces and then pressed them to make objects in relief. The goldsmiths used stone shears to cut out different shapes. They began to decoratively emboss their pieces between 900-200BC. Cold metal was sometimes brittle so they learned to reheat it to soften it so they could reshape it or join pieces together by soldering. Hammering gold continued while the casting method was discovered. Early casting methods were very crude. Carved rocks were used as molds and melted gold was poured in. Later, half-molds were used and separated after the gold had cooled. The molds progressed from rocks to ceramic. When the object was removed from the mold it was polished. Pendants, ear and nose ornaments were made by this method. Using molds advanced to the “lost wax” process from about 400-700AD. Objects made this way were finely detailed. This process consists of making a model of the object in wax, then completely enclosing it in clay. Tiny holes are left so the wax will run out, become lost, when the mold is heated. The molten gold is poured into the empty cavity through the hole. When cooled, the clay mold is broken to release the casting. The final step was when the goldsmiths learned the craft of filigree and of combining metals. Filigree is using metal threads that are produced by rolling wire under tension for decoration. The artisans found that by mixing gold with a small percentage of copper they could produce an alloy with a melting temperature below that of either of the parent metals. The craftsmanship of working gold was highly valued. Goldsmiths usually enjoyed particularly high status. In some regions there were towns inhabited solely by gold working artisans, who made products for their own group as well as for trade with neighboring tribes. Gold was treasured by all of the tribal members but there were clear distinctions with the quantity and quality of gold ornaments various members of a group were permitted to own. Gold had great religious value. It was given to the gods in offerings, buried with the dead and gold objects served as special symbols in ceremonies.

This is an embossed plate made by the hammered technique.

This object was created using the hammered technique. This was created using the lost wax technique. A caiman hunter made with the lost wax technique. A filigree earring with a shaman and two jaguars.

Even though my primary topic was the Inuits, I found this really awesome Inca website with [|Virtual Tours] of Machu Picchu... there's 19 viewing sites to choose from and you can pretty much get a complete, 360 degree view of whichever site you want. Just thought I would share that... also, I couldn't help noticing, but the stone architecture is amazing... it looks like something that would be installed in a house nowadays, and it was a long time ago.

The Andes is a mountain range in South America. They make up the "worlds longest exposed mountain range", which means that it is the longest mountain range above sea-level. The Andes cross many countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. The mountain range is more that 4,400 miles long, 300 miles wide, and about 13,000 feet high. The "Andean range" is make up of two great ranges: the Cordillera Oriental (meaning Eastern range) and the Cordillera Occidental (meaning Western range). The Andes is made up of three regions: central, northern, and southern. The climate of the Andes varies depending on where in the range it is. The northern region is hotter because it is closer to the equator. The Incas evolved in the northern Andes in the 1400s. The Incas worked very hard in agriculture in the Andes. They were very efficient in carving up the mountains and making them into terraced farmlands ("a leveled section of a hilly cultivated area, designed as a method of soil conservation to slow or prevent the rapid surface runoff of irrigation water"). The Incas were very successful in making the mountainside into terraced farmland. In fact, "in 1500 there was more land in cultivation in the Andean highlands then there is today." The Incas grew potatoes and corn for food, and raised llamas and alpacas for labor. Many Incan religious ceremonies were centered around agriculture. The many civilizations in the Andean area provided for the Inca Empire to be disunifed, so they established a uniform language to make them more unified. The Incas spoke Quechua and forced the people they conquered to speak it, and because of that Quechua is still spoken in the Andes by a large number of Native Americans. There was no writing system at all, but records were kept on quipu (colored, knotted cords). The Spanish gained control of the Inca empire in the 1560s. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes (Andes Wikipedia Article) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quipu (Quipu) http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes.htm (The Andes Mountain Range) [|http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAMRCA/INCAS.HTM] (Incas)

View From Inca Trail of Andes:

Another View of the Andes:

Quipu: