Maya

Info about the Maya goes here

These are examples of Mayan writing, or "glyphs": image source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Palenque_glyphs-edit1.jpg/400px-Palenque_glyphs-edit1.jpg

Here's a map showing [|Mayan trade routes] (thanks Mr. Velto).


 * Mayan Maize**

Corn or Maize is a domesticated form of wild grass, it was used to feed every Mayan from the peasants and servants to the nobles and kings. Cobs of corn have been found in archaeological digs that date back to 5000 BC (Not necessarily in Mayan lands, just corn in general). Corn has a higher yield than wheat, rice, barley, or any other new world grain. The Maya thought of Corn as a gift from the gods and just the acts of farming it was a sacred duty in itself. The Popul Vuh (the sacred book of the Maya) even said that man was created out of maize. It was said that the Gods mixed their blood with flour made from corn, and made humans. The preparation and consumption of the corn itself was important to the Maya. The hard kernels were boiled in water and white lime to remove the hulls. Then the grain would be ground into dough that was used to make Tamales or Tortillas. This process increases the amino acids, calcium and niacin in the Corn, which are naturally low. Without processing the corn in this way, basing a diet off of just corn could cause malnutrition. To make the cornmeal, the kernels of corn were boiled with limestone and then washed off. The shells were then removed and ground on a metate (a flat rectangular stone). the ground corn was then left to rise and shaped into flat, thin circles and then cooked on a comal grill. a comal grill First the //kuum// (kernels of maize) is boiled with limestone, then washed, The shell is removed and the kernels are placed on a smooth rectangular stone called a //metate// and ground. The ground maize is left to rise and is then shaped into thin, flat circles which are cooked on a //comal// grill.

Tamales are cornmeal that is mixed with shortening and flavorings and then formed into a roll and stuffed with meat and then steamed in a banana leaf. Tortillas are flat circles of cornmeal dough that are then cooked, tortillas are used today all over the world. Because Tortillas are flexible, they can be filled with meat or vegetables, or used to scoop up food. Making tortillas was one of Mayan women's main roles since each family could each 20-25 in one meal. [|Fuego Neuvo] [|Mayan Art and Painting] [|PBS Article on the Maya]

(Preston)

Mayan Warfare/Battle Strategies

[|Warfare] was important to the Maya for a couple of reasons. The main reason was the obtaining of sacrificial victims. I certainly wouldn't want to be conquered if I was in the Mayan civilization…

Another reason for war being a good thing in the Mayan society was that they used it to set competitive rivalries among one another. I can see why this would be useful for the Mayan civilization. Without competition, there is no incentive to do better and make better technology. For example in today's world, computers wouldn't get any better if the computer companies didn't have competition that was trying to outdo them…

The final reason is the acquiring of resources and trade routes. For the former, I can see why it would be so important to the Maya. Obsidian was almost the "oil" of today. Without it, the Mayan tribe couldn't survive, just like the societies today (USA, China and the UK, to name a few) who cannot survive without oil (and more importantly low oil prices) Back to the Maya. In addition to acquiring critical resources, the Mayans also needed to conquer trade routes. Just like in today's world, the trade routes were what built the Mayan civilization.

Something that also surprised me were how advanced the Mayan tactics of warfare were. For an civilization that was called "backward" by the Spanish when they landed, they certainly had better tactics than their counterparts in Europe (at the time). The Mayans defended their cities using various earthworks, which seemed incredibly advanced for the time. In Europe, yes, they had stone walls, but the Mayans developed clear ways to defend their cities in ways that didn't require walls.

One such defense mechanism was the Mayan Killing alley. The Mayans would build two walls to defend their city, and they would keep the inner wall closed but allow the enemy to rush in through the outer wall. The gates to the outer wall would then close, sealing the enemy inside, where they could be killed in great numbers.

Another thing that amazed me when I was looking at Mayan Warfare was their development of guerilla warfare. Most agree that the Revolutionary War was the first war where guerilla tactics were used for the first time against a "conventional" army, yet nearly 1200 years in the past, guerilla tactics were already being practiced!

~The Brit (Otherwise known as Harry :) )

Famous Mayan Ruins
Tikal

Chichen Itza

Chichen Itza is a square pyramid with a lot of religious significance. When I went to Chichen Itza, I learned about a lot of the religious things involved. Chichen Itza actually an area, not just the pyramid. The pyramid is the highlight of the area, which has led a lot of people to believe that Chichen Itza is the pyramid itself. The land includes many types of buildings, such as a ball court, an observatory, and a multitude of other pyramids and pillars. The main pyramid is called El Castillo. It has 91 steps on each of its 4 sides, totalling 364 steps in all. There is a step at the top of the pyramid upping the total to 365, respresenting how many days are in the year. In addition to the solar year, there are 9 bigger steps on each side, representing the 9 levels in the Mayan Underworld. On the spring and autumn equinox of each year (March and September 21st) the sun casts a shadow of the side of El Castillo in the shape of a snake. On a certain side of El Castillo, it is designed so that if you clap there will be 7 echoes. This is the same in the ball court of Chichen Itza as well. I also remember that the winners of the ball court were to be sacrificed to the gods. Being sacrificed was a big honor because, naturally, you want to give the gods the best that you can offer. Being a ball-player requires athletic skill, and winning it is a great honor, although you die. Here's a picture of the main pyramid: I also found this map: ~ Patrick Luo

Palenque Palenque is one of the many ruins found in what used to be the Mayan Empire. While Palenque is not one of the biggest ruins that they built, it is still important for the architecture and the art seen there. Palenque is one of the more impressive of the ruins, while being covered by a large jungle. It actually wasn't discovered until the mid-1500's by some Spaniard explorers. One of the rulers of Palenque, and probably the most famous of them, was Pacal the Great. He was responsible for helping rebuild the city after it was attacked by another city-state. However, Pacal had a really elaborate funeral monument. While Palenque is still growing with excavations, much is still needed to be done as around 500 buildings are estimated to be in the area, while only 34 have been opened. [|Palenque Wikipedia]

Palenque first showed up around 300 BC, now known due to some pottery. Yet while it was there for a long time, it wasn't of much use until 600 AD. In 603, Pacal (mentioned above) took over as King and ruled until 671. Pacal was known for his power, and to show that he built many spectacular buildings there, including the 'Palace.' The Palace itself was quite amazing. There were many rooms, and had many carvings on the inside. However, one of the greatest things for the Palace was running water. It was still early in history, and running water was seen as such a brilliant idea. When Pacal was 80, he died and was buried in the Pyramid of Inscriptions. Not only did he have a jade mask, but his whole body was adorned with jade armor. Not only that, but gold wire was used to put together all the jade. This was the most jade ever seen for a Mayan tomb. [|Palenque by Michael Schrom]

The Temple of Inscriptions are probably the most important building of them all in Palenque. The building for it could have started as early as 675 CE, and this is used to hold the body of Pacal. It is a very amazingly built building and many impressive things are in the temple such as: the second longest glyph text in the Mayan world, about 180 years worth of Mayan history there, and the documenting of rituals performed there by a king. On the actual tomb, it looks as if Pacal is being the maize (corn) god. The passage to the actual tomb wasn't found until 1952, in which a back passageway led directly down to the tomb. It is a pretty amazing place. [|Palenque Sacred Destinations]

media type="youtube" key="cOtEMi1aj3M&hl=en" height="355" width="425" This is a good 4 minute and 51 second video of the ruins at Palenque. It is purely just showing the ruins still standing today. Towards the end, some artifacts are shown. Getting the first minute gives a good look at the ruins, but the ending is also good for more and possibly better pictures.

http://youtube.com/watch?v=KrXFs1xunn4 This video pays tribute to Pacal. It has a theory of an interesting prophecy about Pacal and 2012, coincidentally the year the Mayans predicted the calendar would end and a new era would be ushered in. It’s a short 2:18 video that has a 3-d model of Palenque in the middle of the video. In the video, the prophecy is stated by saying when Pacal's tomb is opened (1952), a male baby would be born at that time and he would rise and become a time witness and king in 2012. It said that after his initial death, he was worshipped as a god and many believed he would return again some day.











-Andrew Tie

Here's a good picture of [|Palenque].

Article about [|how the Maya fed all those people] (population estimated as high as xx)


 * Edzná-Mayan Ruins**


 * A Mayan city that was founded around 600 to 300 BC. It originally started out as a small agricultural community but as the years passed it became an economic entity. Edzna had its own system of aqueducts and canals. However, it did not reach its full power until about 200 AD. Today, it lies**
 * in the state of Campeche and is a tourist destination.**

media type="youtube" key="H8H0lzAoGTQ&hl=en" height="344" width="425"



[|ca]

Sources:: http://www.yucatantoday.com/destinations/eng-edzna.htm <http://www.mayanbeachgarden.com/edzna.html http://www.portalciencia.net/images/edzna2.jpg http://www.delange.org/Edzna/EdznaMap.jpg

The Mayan civilization used brushes made with animal hair and quills as writing tools. The writing was normally done in black ink with red highlights. See this link for a picture displaying the black ink with red highlighting also called codex-style writing. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/earlyamericas/readingartifacts/html/images/feature.jpg Literacy was not widespread beyond the elite classes. In terms of mathematics, Maya and its neighbors came up with the concept of zero by 36 BC and they use a base 20 system. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_civilization 'The Mayans way of education was taught to only the higher authority such as priests, leaders/chiefs, war leaders, etc. As far as the rest of the Mayan population went, education and learning were both a thing that existed in their house, where their parents taught them information that they knew from growing up and information that passed down to them generation to generation.' Pasted from http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~jchance/mayainfo.html http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Diagrams/Maya_num.gif This is a picture of Mayan numbers 0-29. Character training was an important part of Mayan education. The self restraint, cooperative work, and moderation was important in different stages of socialization as well as in different religious festivals. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47446/education In 2001, Ellen Coburn started the Mayan Education Project. See the following site for information on this foundation. http://www.mayanproject.org/
 * Mayan Education**

In order to become a teacher (which is also the same thing as being a priest, but the education part of the training), the people had to develop self-discipline. The future priest had to endure long periods of continence and abstinence, and, to develop loyalty to community, had to engage in group labor. These techniques were used to provide the best possible teachers for the civilization. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47446/education Mayan Hope is another foundation focusing on education in the Mayan Culture. They believe that education is key to success and are doing everything possible to improve learning. http://www.mayanhope.org/education.htm


 * Mayan Art**

At Palenque, there are many carvings and reliefs made of stucco. Reliefs are sculptured artworks that have 3d objects that are all connected to a single plane. The glyphs and other artwork of the Mayan Civilization are famous examples of reliefs. ([|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief)] The Statuary of Copan has carved sculptures of Copan's rulers worked on with great amounts of precision. ([|http://www.geocities.com/Athens/7830/copan.htm)] Go to this link to view an example of a statue at Copan. http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1274/1306285426_6db6056376.jpg?v=0 The only paintings found are on ceramics and funeral pottery suggesting that painting wasn't a main art form. However, Bonampak holds ancient murals that survived by serendipity. Maya Blue was used frequently until the 16th century when the technique was lost. Go to this link to view a picture of a warrior with Maya blue in the background. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7a/Azulm6.jpg


 * Mayan Religion**

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The Mayan religion was founded when the Maya civilization was founded, which was 250 AD. The religion includes the worship of many nature gods, such as: the sun god, rain, corn, ect. Itzamna, Kukulcan, Bolon Tzacab, and Chac, are some of the main gods. Itzamna is the creator god and also the god of fire. Kukulcan is the feathered serpent god. Bolon Tzacab is the god of royal descent. Lastly, Chac is the god of rain and lightning. To the Mayans, religion and science were equally important and pretty much the same. There was a lot of interest in astronomy and astrology. They were able to calculate a solar year and even predicted solar eclipses. They were also //very// good in mathematics and began to use the number "0." The Maya overall, are known as a peaceful people who are very "absorbed" into their religion and are not violent like their neighbors.=====

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Since the Mayans believed that science and religion were basically the same thing, I decided to expand on what I'm researching and to look at Mayan science and how it connects to religion (since I couldn't really think of anything). I found that the Mayans are known as "Supreme Masters of Time" and best known for recording the system of the planets and galactic time cycles. (I got that from this site: [|http://www.13moon.com/ABOUT%20THE%20MAYA.htm�370��196��197�I was thinking, how can the Mayans connect religion to science..? I found the perfect explanation from the same website. "The Mayan Temples and time cycles serve as gateways of sacred knowledge which integrates man, earth, and the heavens as one cosmic unfoldment." Personally, I thought that made perfect sense and had been exactly what I was looking for. Having religion around would eventually connect them to the heavens which is like going into space, which eventually made them interested in astronomy. The Mayan philosophy teaches that "the human body belongs to the earth, and the human spirit to the Universe." ( �55��371�[[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.13moon.com/Mayan%2520LORD.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.13moon.com/ABOUT%2520THE%2520MAYA.htm&h=464&w=200&sz=10&hl=en&start=11&um=1&tbnid=IWFflV9NS-9rVM:&tbnh=128&tbnw=55&prev=/images%3Fq%3DMayan%2Bscience%2B%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN|�866�] explains why they view religion and on the same level.  =====

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Next, I decided to look at the rulers, or priests of the Mayans. The Priests were the most important people in Mayan tribes and educated everyone about the gods and what they meant. They tried pleasing their gods, by using sacrificing, since they believed they were the main reason for natural disasters (storms, droughts ect.) ( [|http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~jchance/mayainfo.html�375��202��203�The main ruler/creator, was Hunan Ku. �376��14� �679�- Maia�680��681��204� �377��682��205� �378��683��15���206�The Mayans believed blood was sacred. They practiced ritual sacrifice and bloodletting. They would cut out peoples beating hearts and burn them for the gods. They put blood on paper and burned it. They thought that blood nourished the gods. They burned the blood because that was the way they “gave it to the gods”�379��16� �684�~ Daniel�685��686��687��688��689�**Mayan Gods**�690�The Mayans believed in many gods. The gods were Ah Puch (god of death), Bacab (thunder deity that carries the earth and/or the sky), Chaac (god of rain and thunder), Camazots (Bat god), Gukumatz (snake god), Hunahpu, Huracan (storm and fire god, creator diety), Ixbalanque, Ixchel (jaguar goddess of midwifery), Ixtab (goddess of suicide), and Zipacna (underworld demon).�691�The Bacabs were four brothers. A creator god placed the four brothers, called skybearers, at the four corners of the universe. Each is associated with a color and segment in the Maya calender. Hobnil was the bacab of the east, red, the Kan years. Can Tzincnal: North, white, Muluc years. Zac Cimi: West, black, Ix years. Hozanek: south, yellow, Cauac years. The four brothers were associated with the rain deities. The Mayans looked to the Bacabs for answers about the crops, weather, or the health of bees.�692�The Creation Story: Tepeu and Gukumatz are the creators of the world. They were the first two beings to exist and were said to be as wise as sages. They held a conference and decided that in order to preserve their legacy, they must create a race of beings who could worship them. Huracan created while Tepeu and Gucumatz guided the process. The Earth was created, but the gods had several false starts in setting humanity upon the earth. Animals were created first; however, with all of their howling and squawking they did not worship their creators and were thus banished forever to the forest. Man is created first of mud, but they just dissolved and crumbled away. Other gods are summoned and man is next created of wood but has no soul, and they soon forgot their makers, so the gods turned all of their possessions against them and bring a black resinous rain down on their heads. Finally man is formed of masa or corn dough by even more gods and their work is complete. As such, the Maya believed that maize was not just the cornerstone of their diet, but they were also made out of it. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_mythology�693�-Kristen�694��695��696��697��698��699��700��701��207��208��209��151��210� �211��212��213��214� �380��381��382��383��384��385��386��387��702��215��216�“The Mayan God Chac”�703��217��218��219��220��221��222��223��224��225��226��227��228��229��152��704��230��231��232� �388��389��390��391��392��393��394��395��396��397��398��399��400��401��402��403��404��405��705��233��234� �406��235�“Kukulclan, the feathered serpent”�706��707�~Daniel�708��709��407��408��710��711��712��713��153��154��714�These buildings are those of the Mayan civilization located on the Yucatan Peninsula. I found it on http://www.snomnh.ou.edu/collections-research/cr-sub/ethnology/mayan/Background/Background.html <--that site. I couldn't find out exactly what it was or where exactly it was located.�715�Mayans had advanced architecture in their time, there were large buildings, although not very tall. The architecture relied on intricately carved stone to create the stair-like structures.�716�Houses in the Mayan culture were usually made of wood, stone, and mud. The stone that they used was lime stone because it was abundant and easily formed.�717�There were two types of religious structures and these included pyramids and temples. The pyramids were not only used for religious purposes but also they were used as landmarks for the Mayans. The pyramids were built so tall they were stretch above the rainforest so they could be seen from a distance. The first pyramid was built in Uaxactun, Guatemala just before the birth of christ. The Mayans had pyramids that were used in sacrifices and others were not meant to be touched because they were sacred. Staircases were very popular in the development of these buildings. The pyramids used for sacrifices had steps that were meant to be climbed. However the sacred pyramids had steps what were way too steep to be climbed. The temples also served a ritualistic purpose. The temples were similar to the huts of the people and there were alters for sacrificial purposes. The temples were usually located on the tops of the pyramids. The exterior of the temples and pyramids had elaborately carved stone to decorate the outside. On the inside of the pyramids and temples there would be murals on the walls.�718�There were also palaces that were built for the elite of the population. Although they were usually one story and had small chambers, it was heavily decorated.�719�The Mayans attempted to connect their religion, astronomy, and architecture all together. The Mayans carefully organized the structure of their cities to line up with what they thought was the orbit of all the stars. To do this, the Mayans measure the rising and setting of the sun and also how the constellations would move across the sky. Different temples were used to worship different gods. For example, the sun temple was used to worship/pray to the sun god.�720��721��155�i found this picture from http://www.13moon.com/pyramidTIKAL.jpg�722��236�it is a picture of a temple in Tikal, Guatemala�723��724��156�this picture is from http://www.lost-civilizations.net/images/mayan/uxmalpyramid.jpg and it is a picture of a temple in Uxma, Guatemala.�725��726��157��727�this is a picture of the ruin of an ancient temple in Palenque, Guatemala. I found it from this site: http://lanikai.7milesys.com/199x/99MazatlanB/mayanPalace.jpg�728��729�-BRETTY�730��731��409��732��733��17��Mythology�18� The Maya have many myths that show themselves in their art and religion, but one of the central myths of any civilization is the story of creation. According to this story, two gods, Tepeu and Gukumatz, were the Creators of life. They were said to be the first things to exist. Together, they decide that they require people that can worship them so that their legacy might be preserved. The earth is created by Huracan, a storm-like god, while the two wise gods guide his creation. First, they created animals. Those, however, did not provide the required worship and were cast aside into the forest. Next, the gods attempted the create humans out of mud, but the creations soon crumbled. After this, they attempted to make humans out of wood, but they were soulless and could not worship their creators. Therefore, the gods sent the black rain of resin to destroy them. For the third and last try, the two gods formed man out of corn dough, and these creations provided the proper worship. These creations are the current humans, and what the Mayans thought they were.�734�The creation myth also includes the origin of the two social classes. While the gods were trying to make humans, they constructed men of gold, but their creations had no heart so they could not praise the gods; the gods left these creations on earth. Later, when the men of flesh were exploring, they found these men of gold. Their kindness warmed the man of gold’s heart and caused him to live. Delighted, the gods decreed the man of gold was ‘rich’ and the rich should look after the men of flesh, the ‘poor’. They ordained that the rich would be judged by how they looked after the poor. ([[http://www.amherst.k12.wi.us/USERWEBS/faculty/faculty/gorddebr/myths/Mayacrea.html%E2%80%9D%3ECreation|http://www.amherst.k12.wi.us/USERWEBS/faculty/faculty/gorddebr/myths/Mayacrea.html]) =====

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The creation myth was not the only Mayan myth; there were many other myths involving a kingdom of animals. Each animal represents a different part of humans, and the myths are intended to teach morals to the Mayan people. One common animal in Mayan Mythology is the rabbit. The rabbit represents the idea of the “struggle to overcome the material state.” ([|http://www.indigenouspeople.net/rabbmaya.ht]) The rabbit is often shown as deceiving other animals: one myth involves the rabbit tricking a coyote into holding up a rock that the rabbit said held up the sky. Another tells the story of how the rabbit sold the animals of a farmer that he was supposed to only be watching; he pretends that the animals have run away. =====

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Another common feature in Mayan mythology is the idea of trying to imitate those bigger than you. In one such story, a possum watches a jaguar hunt and take down a bull. Later, the possum attempts to copy the jaguar and is killed by the bull. =====

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As in any culture, some of the myths try to explain certain features in animals. One story involves the Choosing of the King of Birds ([|http://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Legends/How_The_King_Of_Birds_Was_Chosen-Mayan.html).] The birds in the story decided that they had to choose a king. While the birds were arguing, the quetzal Bird went to find the roadrunner. The quetzal knew he had manners and grace, but he lacked the beautiful feathers that would fit a king. The quetzal convinced the roadrunner to let him borrow his feathers, and the quetzal easily becomes king with the feathers. Over time, the quetzal forgets about borrowing the feathers, but the other animals notice the roadrunner missing. They find him in the woods, shivering from lack of feathers, and each of the birds donate a few feathers to him. This myth claims that the roadrunner watches the roads, looking for the quetzal and asking “Puhuy, puhuy?” (Where is he? Where is he?). =====

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The objective of the game was to get a rubber ball, about 20 inches in diameter, through a ring that would be raised very high above the ground, without using your hands. This was a very serious game that was affiliated with religion and government. Religious leaders would attend the games and sacred songs were played. The team that won the game was praised and honored, sometimes with a huge feast. The losing team was treated very harshly. The leader of the team was killed and the other team mates were treated very harshly; they could also be killed in some instances as well. The Mayans believed that human sacrifice was necessary because it would continue the agriculture, trade and health of the civilization overall. It was more than just a game to the Mayans it was more of a lifestyle, a ritual and a cultural practice. It is similar to basketball, soccer and football, in that you must get a ball through a hoop without using your hands (soccer), the hoop is very high above the ground (basketball) and the society takes it very seriously (football and/or soccer). The people of the U.S.A. tend to take football very seriously, not the extent of killing the losers, but they do praise the winners and scold the losers. The Super bowl is a great example because, for example, this year the Giants were the suprise win and the Patriots were supposed to be the frontrunners; so after the event the winners were praised and the losers were not. Also, soccer is a huge event in Europe, South America and elsewhere. =====

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The Maya people, because they were so spread out, did not have one common language that could be spoken and understood by all Maya. Instead, the “language of the Maya” is a collection of 21 similar dialects, each with slight differences and spoken in a different region of the Maya world. The “language family,” as Maya is called, is descended from a single tongue: Proto-Mayan, believed to have originated in Guatemala. From Proto-Mayan, the language split into four “branches”—Eastern, Western, Huastecan, and Yucatecan. From there, the branches were divided further until 21 distinct languages emerged. This diagram from Wikipedia clearly illustrates the division of the Maya language family: =====

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Of the 21 tongues that comprise the Maya language family, the majority are still spoken today. Together, the Maya languages have 6 million speakers throughout the United States, Mexico and Central America. The languages of the Huastecan branch are spoken in southern Mexico, the Yucatecan in the Yucatan Peninsula, the Western in Mexico (especially the area known as Tabasco,) Honduras and El Salvador and the Eastern branch in Guatemala, El Salvador and Mexico. K’iche’ and Yucatec, with 1,000,000 and 800,000 speakers respectively, are the most widely spoken Mayan tongues. Chicomucletec, Ch’olti’ and Itza’ are extinct (no longer spoken) while Lakantun, Uspantek, Tekiteko and Sipakapense are endangered, with less than 10,000 speakers each. =====

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The Mesoamerican languages are very different from European languages in many ways. The Mayan tongues share many common elements with the other dialects of Mesoamerica. None of the Mayan languages, spoken, or written, include prepositions. Instead, Mayan languages use relational nouns, or nouns describing an object’s location relative to another object. =====

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Also, Mayan languages contain many compound words with two stems, known as //calques.// The Maya would define concepts they had no word for by combining two other words, usually animals or body parts. =====

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Lastly, the Mayan numeral system is what is known as vigesimal, or base-twenty.They had ten additional one-digit numerals (besides 0-9). Historians have been unable to ascertain the values of these numbers. Their numbers were written as combinations of lines and dots, lines equalling 5 and dots equalling 1. An example is below: =====

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The written form of all Maya languages during the time we are studying are //glyphs,// pictures used to represent words. Specifically, the Mayan tongues utilize a combination of //logograms,// glyphs that represent entire words and //syllabic glyphs// which represent individual syllables, such as prefixes or suffixes. =====

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Most glyphs found in existing codices from the height of the Mayan empire are glyphs derived from the spoken language Ch’olti’, now extinct. Many historians believe that Ch’olti’ was the //lingua franca// of the Mayan empire (the most commonly spoken, like English in the USA today). =====

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Mayan glyphs read left to right and top to bottom, with writing usually arranged in columns two to four glyphs wide and three to six glyphs tall. A column, or “block” as the Maya called them, was usually a phrase (such as //his brown dog//) or, occasionally, a short sentence. The following picture details how to read a Mayan inscription: =====

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Due to the fact that both whole word glyphs and syllable glyphs existed, any given word would have many different spellings in Mayan. An example is provided below using the word //balam,// or jaguar. =====

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Historians do not know how the Maya developed their writing system. Similarities to the Olmec and Epi-Olmec language families have led some to believe that their writing came from the Olmecs. Certainly Proto-Mayan and Epi-Olmec contain many linguistic similarities. One reason why the origin of the Maya glyphs is still contested today is due to a Spanish priest, Bishop Diego de Landa, who destroyed hundreds of Maya codices in his attempt to “erase paganism” from the Yucatan Peninsula. De Landa also created a false “Mayan alphabet” that was much similar to European languages than any actual Mayan dialect (because Europeans had trouble accepting that a civilization could have developed such an advanced language without European influence). This reminded me of another time Europeans showed such skepticism of foreigners, at the discovery of Great Zimbabwe. =====

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Despite de Landa’s efforts, it is clear that Proto-Mayan and all its descendents are unique dialects that developed completely without European, Latin or Roman influence. This uniqueness that sets Mayan apart has also contributed to making it difficult to decipher—making the language of the ancient Mayans a puzzle that modern historians still have not solved. =====

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It is a mainly phonetic alphabet with ~550 hundred symbols whole words. There are 150 symbols that represent syllables. There are also 300 symbols that represent the Gods and names of certain people. Only about 300 of these symbols were commonly used. The glyphs were inscribed in wood, bark, jade, ceramics, and a few manuscripts.These are some examples of what (phoneticly) some dialects may have sound like. =====

Cakchiquel
Konojel ri winaqi' kan kalaxib'en pe ri kolotajïk, ri junan kiq'ij, ri junan kejqalen, junan kich'ojib'al pa kik'aslen, xa achi'el k'a ri kik'ojlen, ri kinojib'al kichajin xa tik'amun k'a chi nimaläj konojel xtikajo' ki'.

Huasteco (Tének)
Patal an inik ani an uxum u wa'tsinal walkadh abal jununúl kin bats'uw an alwa'taláb ani ka pidhan in éy jant'ini' in tomnál; in kwa'al in tsalpádh ani in k'ayá' abal kin k'anidha' in juntal.

Mam
Kyaqiilqe winaq nchi itz'aj tuj kopib'il, juunx kychuwiinqal b'ix kyokleen, kyja'tzan tuj tb'aanal xiinv'il tu'n kyanq'iin tuj b'ank'u'j kyxool.

Tojol-a'b'al
Spetsanal ja swinkil ja lu'um k'inali junxta wax jul schonjel, sok ja sijpanub'ali, ja yuj ojni b'ob' sk'u'luk ja jas sk'ana-i ja b'as lekilali, ja yuj ja ay sk'ujoli sok ay spensari t'ilan oj yilsb'aje lek sok ja smoj jumasa.

Tseltal
Spisil winiketik te ya xbejk´ajik ta k´inalil ay jrerechotik, mayuk mach´a chukul ya xbejka, ya jnatik stojol te jpisiltik ay snopibal sok sbijil joltik, ja´ me k´ux ya kaibatik ta jujun tul.

Tsotsil
Skotol vinik o ants ta spejel balumile k´olem x-hayan i ko´ol ta sch´ulal i sderechoetik i, skotol k´ux-elan oyike oy srasonik y slekilalik, sventa skuxijik leknóo ta ju jun ju ju vo.

Yucatec (yukatek)
Tuláakal wíinik ku síijil jáalk'ab yetel keet u tsiikul yetel Najmal Sijnalil, beytun xan na'ata'an sijnalil yetel no'oja'anil u tuukulo', k'a'abet u bisikuba bey láaktzilil yetel tuláakal u baatzile'.

Translation (of all the above texts)
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. //(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)//

The glyphs combine syllables, symbols, and emblems into a very complex phonetic system.

Numerals
The mayan numbering system is a base 20 system and is comprised of lines, dots, and stones. The first breakthrough in deciphering these glyphs was made in the 1950's by a Russian ethnologist, Yuri Valentinovich Knorosov, when he suggested that it may be partly phonetic.

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/mayan.htm http://history-world.org/mayag.htm ~Scott_Kenney

__**Clothes and Jewelry from the Mayan Civilization**__ I'm interested in the clothes and jewelry that were worn by the Mayan Civilization. I found out from [|this] Wikipedia article that the common garment of men was a cotton breech cloth that is wrapped around the middle of their bodies with a sleevless shirt being either white or dyed with a variety of colors. Women usually wore an item known as //traje// which is a "combination of woven, multicolored blouse known as a //huipil// or a //corte,// a woven wraparound skirt that reaches to its ankles, by a sash at the waist." The women's hair are usually plaited in long tresses. Both men and women wore sandals. Something interesting that I found out was that Tattooing and head-flattening were practiced among the Mayan civilization and their faces and bodies were always painted.

Mayan dignitaries usually wore huge earplugs, beads, shields, and decorations that were attached to their mouths, nose, hands,waist and sometimes legs. The farmers were not expected to wear much. The men wore a type of loincloth around their waist and sometimes moccasins made out of deer skin. On the other hand, females had two items of clothing which were a length of "ornamented" material and had holes for the arms and head. This was known as a //kub//. On cooler days, a heavier material in a more rectangular shape, was used in various ways. Both men and women would use this material as an "overwrap", a blanket at night, and sometimes as a blind across the door. This piece of material was known as a //manta.//

The clothing of farmers and the clothing of wealthier people differed. Farmer's clothing was more plain while wealthier people's clothing was much more brighter as well as more elaborate. Though their garments were very thin, the Mayan people believed strongly in personal decoration. As a result of this, the masses were known to have worn different knick-knacks made of stone, wood, and bone, mostly on their faces. For a more noble look, "adornments" were usually made of metal and sometimes jade. Also, they were believed to have filed down their teeth and sometimes covered them with precious jade or valuable stones. Besides everything else, the Mayan people were extremely fond of tattooing and painting their bodies.

For ceremonies, women were also known to have worn headdresses.

^ The traditional Mayan clothing for both men (on the right) and women (on the left).

^These are what most women from the Mayan civilization wear everyday.

__Sources__: [|KidsNewsRoom] - An article from Fairfax, Virginia giving excellent information on the Mayan civilization.ca-americas » Maya [|Wikipedia Article] - A Wikipedia article giving the basics on Mayan clothing

- Madeline Burroughs (I will add more later)

Maya blue is a unique color of blue that was made by ancient Mesoamerican cultures like Maya and Aztec, not just Maya. Over lots of time and bad weather, Maya Blue has kept its color. Scientists were stunned that the pigment had kept its color from such harsh conditions and that it was resistant against chemicals like acids. They did find that it could be destroyed using very strong acids under reflux. The pigment is formed using the clays palygorskite and montmorillonite, leaves of the anil, and the dye indigo. Maya Blue was the color of the Mayan rain god Chaak. If the sky started to look like Mayan Blue (with no clouds), the Mayans would immediately make sacrifices to Chaak to ask for rain. Historians have figured out that this blue was very important to the priests and it was important for the Mayan rituals. Here are some pictures: http://www.mayafiles.com/img/paint.jpg __[|http://www.azulmaya.com/bonampak/azulm.jpg�476�__ __ [|http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7a/Azulm6.jpg/200px-Azulm6.jpg�478�__ http://www.valdostamuseum.org/hamsmith/MayaBlue.gif
 * Maya Blue**

Aztec Blue http://www.trekmates.co.uk/_images/thumbs/aztec%20blue_300x600.jpg http://www.nucorbuildingsystems.com/Products/colors/ab.gif

~Amy Holt

NOTE: the links for all the pictures can be found by clicking them
 * Mayan Medicine**

Emma-In mayan medicine, humans are regarded lower than nature because nature controls sickness and health. Everything is related to the mind and soul, which connects with the organs. Sickness is a result of imbalances with the family, nauture, or the community. Hot and cold forces are also important. ([|http://www.medicinamaya.org/i_mayan%20medicine.html)] The Mayans also had some forms of dental treatment and surgey and could even make prostheses from jade and turquoise filled with iron. Evidence also shows that they tried opening the skull for surgical purposes. Some common treatments were sweat baths, massage, herbs, plants, shamanism, and mind altering substances. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_health_and_medicine ) Althought blood was important for the regulation of the body's balances, bloodletting was not used as a medical healing, but rather for rituals.

click here for more infor on Elois **http://www.anthro.uga.edu/people/eaberlin.htm** **click here for more info on Brent [|http://www.anthro.uga.edu/people/obberlin.html****
 * **Religion and science together**
 * **Used human hair to bind wounds, and casts**
 * **Described some diseases such as yellow fever**
 * **Elois Ann Berlin and Brent Berlin are two historians that argued the Mayans relied on science and natural causes more than supernatural causes**


 * Sweat baths
 * Mothers who recently conceived a child would use them
 * People who were sick and sought healing
 * Kings - ritual purification
 * Stone walls and ceilings with stones, hot water was poured in like a modern day Sauna
 * Massage
 * Bone setters- would massage the area of a mis-placed bone, or break the bone and re set it
 * This technique is still used in Guatamala
 * Plants
 * Fresh herbs chopped and used as a plaster or skin medication
 * Cacao was also used
 * Shamans
 * Would communicate with the spirit world to help heal them[[image:http://www.the-book-of-mormon.com/mayan-pottery-chama-valley.jpg width="619" height="290" caption="Mayan Medicine depicted on pottery" link="http://www.the-book-of-mormon.com/mayan-pottery-chama-valley.jpg"]]
 * Mind altering substances
 * Smoking, drugs, alcohol (which was very strong)
 * Narcotics used to have "unseen powers"
 * Relief of pain

media type="youtube" key="LymOtoaD4zA&hl=en" height="355" width="425"

//Disease// Some diseses documented included pinta, [|leishmaniasis], and [|yellow fever], and several psychiatric syndromes. The arrival of the Europeans also brought diseases, which were thought to be one of the reasons the Mayan Empire ended. (Emma Frank)

Mayan Blood Sacrifice
 * __Intro to sacrifice in the Mayan’s- __ Sacrifice was extremely symbolic and greatly ritualized in the ancient Mayan culture. To the Mayan people, possessions or material items were not valuable; the value of life was the most important aspect of their religion and beliefs. Natives believed foreigners’ killed their people (the natives) because of the foreigners’ desire for gold, gems, and other material things. That is, besides the fact they killed all their people, a reason the native Mayans hated the foreigners'; because possesions were most important to them (the foreigners). Some historians speculate the reason for Mayans sacrificing their people was “to create the idea that the "savages" of North and South America deserved their eventual bloody downfall.” (Wikipedia) There were different levels of sacrifice; some sacrifices were performed by commoners, and other was performed by kings and high authority figures. There were two forms of sacrifice; autosacrifice (bloodletting) and human sacrifice. **
 * __Blood Sacrifice- __The “ritualized practice of drawing blood from oneself,” (Wikipedia) It is represented through iconography (image writing), but people who were not elite could still perform sacrifices. The sacrifices were typically performed through obsidian blades or stingray spines, and blood was drawn from piercing or cutting the [|to] ngue, [|earlobes], and/or [|genitals] (among other locations). Another form of autosacrifice was conducted by pulling a rope with attached thorns through the tongue or earlobes. The blood produced was then collected on paper and burned in a bowl. Autosacrifice was not limited to male rulers, as their female counterparts often performed these ritualized activities. They are typically shown in performing the rope and thorns technique. A recently discovered queen's tomb in the Classic Maya site of [|Waka] (also known as El Perú) had a ceremonial stingray spine placed in her genital area, suggesting that women also perform bloodletting in their genitalia. **

  <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';"> http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/images/aztec_sacrifice4.jpg **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';"> http://www.ralphmag.org/1/mayan-three402x255.gif **
 * http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SiJjow6AJEM&NR=1**
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalypto**
 * Laura**

Mayan Religion
 * The mayans do not consider themselves polytheists.**
 * This is the order descending of significance in the mayan religion:**
 * Their main god is Ajaw or Itzamná who is similar to Allah or Jehovah.**
 * Then they have the three lightning Gods**
 * The nine creators**
 * The 4 cardinal directions**
 * The ancestors**
 * and the People.**
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_religion**


 * The Mayans had their own scientific beliefs.**
 * They believed that creation occurred in 3114 BC and destruction will begin in 2011 and 2012 AD**
 * The earth was flat and four cornered. These corners were each assigned a different color and at the center was the color green.**
 * They were supported by the 4 cardinal gods (Bacabs), who were mentioned above.However some believed that they were supported by different color trees and had the silk cotton tree at the center.**
 * The flat earth was said to be the back of a crocodile resting in a pool of lilies.**
 * However, the sky was a double-headed serpent.**
 * There were thirteen layers of heaven in the sky, and each had its own guardian.**
 * The maya beleived in a single supreme deity that inveneted writing and was a patron of the arts. His name was Itzamná and was given the honorary title of Ajaw, which meant lord.**
 * He supposedly had a wife named Ix Chel.**
 * Priests in the mayan religion were closely connected to the Calender and Astronomy. Priests controlled learning and ritual, and were in charge of calculating time, festivals, ceremonies, fateful days and seasons, divination, events, cures for diseases, writing and genealogies.**


 * http://helios.acomp.usf.edu/~kgiel/religion.html**


 * This is a picture of a mayan ritual. The mayans are circling around the fire. These rituals are to invoke mayan spirits for help and guidance.**

~ABE

The Dresden Codex is one of three existing mayan codices that survived the Spanish clergy burning book in 1521. It is often considered the most important one of the codices to have survived. I also learned that it was made from Amatl paper( "kopó", which is tree bark that has been flattened and covered with a lime paste). It was then folded accordion-style. It was written and painted on both sides. It is 74 pages long (**[|**http://www.tu-dresden.de/slub/proj/maya/mayaeng.html**]**). The Mayans made this during the 5th century, which was when the Romans did. This paper from the Mayans was stronger than the Roman's papyrus though (**[|**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_codices**]**). The Dresden Codex has really accurate astronomical calculations. There are almanacs and day counts for worship and prophecies. Also, there are two astronomical and astrological tables. It has references and predictions about the time and agriculture. There was information about sickness, medicine, and even the conjunctions of constellations, planets and the Moon. It also contains a page about a flood, a prophecy or maybe a reference to the rainy seasons so vital to the Maya (**[|**http://www.tu-dresden.de/slub/proj/maya/mayaeng.html**]**). This is a picture of one of the pages in the Dresden Codex. This is an illustrated picture of what the codex looks like as a whole document Here is a video of a Soviet officer, Yuri Knorozov. In May of 1945, the Russians invaded Berlin and there was a book burning. Yuri pulled out a book from the flames and found that it was reproductions of the Mayan Codices. He dedicated his life to learning about the Mayans writing and translating their codices. He made many breakthroughs and helped the world learn about the Mayans. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Ho_mFe0qE8&eurl=http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=dresden+codex&sitesearch=// //-Lauren//

//__Mayan Ritual Sacrifice__// //**<span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;">[|Cenote Sagrado] **Well of Sacrifice// //**<span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;">[|This] **// //The Mayan Ball Game:// <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> Mayan head shaping
 * Rubber was not only useful for the ball game, people could also use to make other products as well. These could include: shoes, containers and tools, as well as some medicines. These medicines could cure lip sores, sore throats and stomach and ear aches.//**
 * <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;">[|http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcal8GcS41IThis�521�[|http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcal8GcS41IThis</span]> **
 * <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> [|http://www.ballgame.org/sub_section.asp?section=2&sub_section=3</span]> **
 * <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> [|http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0310200/mayawp.html</span]> **
 * <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> [|http://www.crystalbuffalo.com/collectors/blackwolf-serrated-obsidian-knife-with-cactus-handle.jpg</span]> **
 * <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> [|http://www.thudscave.com/npaa/designs/mayan01.htm</span]> **
 * <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;"> [|http://www.joyharjo.com/news/2006/12/review-of-apocalypto-by-tiahui-or-why.html</span]> **
 * <span style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0.02in; margin-top: 0in; unicode-bidi: embed;">[|http://www.fashion-era.com/beauty_is_shape.htm</span]> **

[|Images]
Mayan Architecture and Math:

Mayan Math:
 * http://www.michielb.nl/maya/math.html**
 * Mayan Math used a base 20 system as apposed to the base 10 system that we use now. As a means of shorthand they use bars and dots. The bars stand for 5 and the dots stand for 1. When they were writing out larger number they used powers of twenty, so 1, 20, 400, 8,000 etc.**
 * [[image:file/C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CCHARLO%7E1.ORG%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image001.jpg width="318" height="284"]] ||
 * Basic Mayan Math ||

When numbers become so large that it is a hassle to write out all those bars and dots a new way of writing out the numbers is used. Calculating with Mayan numbers: http://localhs.com/pdf/english_mayan_math.pdf

__Architecture:__ The Temple of Kukulcan or El Castillo in Chichen Itza is a an architectural marvel. When you stand in front of the pyramid and clap your hands the echo that returns is said to sound like the sacred Ketzel bird. http://cloudbridge.org/quetzal.jpg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=In7NVdKGR_o&feature=related National Geographic says that it is believed that the steps of the pyramid were designed specifically to create this "chir-oop" sound. "The lower steps have a short tread length and high riser—tough to climb but perfect for producing a high-pitched 'chir' sound. The steps higher up make a lower-pitched 'roop.'"

<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Mayan Trade


 * <span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">During the Mayan Civilization, trade was very common. The types of trade varied greatly, from long-distance trading around various parts of the region, to small trading between farm families. What the Mayans traded for the most was salt. Salt was important part of the Mayan’s diet, but it also was critical in the preservation of food. By covering meat and other food items in salt the Maya were able to make it not rot. Also chocolate was used throughout the region to make sauces, and for drinks. The development of extensive trade networks allowed many Maya communities to gather new materials. Small towns did not need to take part in long-distance trading and limited trade. Farm families, which were the vast majority of the population, still had to participate in exchanges. The craftsmen in the small cities specialized in the production of pottery and stone tools. There was a large two-way trade in raw materials between the highland and lowland Maya. The lowland Maya also developed a wide market for their artistic products, such as textiles, painted pottery, and carved jades. Highland exports included: jade, which was hard to find in the lowlands; Pacific shells; and volcanic materials such, ash which was used in pottery-making. Lowland exports included: knives and points of worked flint, salt, pottery, cotton textiles, deer and other animals. **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">(Wikipedia) **


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Good Video of Mayan Trade- __**


 * <span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">The video talks about what the Mayans traded with and who they traded with. **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-AYKrLpnF8 **


 * <span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">Pasted from <http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/maya-maps-1.htm> **


 * - Davis Bryson**

=Mayan Architecture= This is a video the El Castillo temple in Chichen Itza, or modern day Yucatan. It is considered one of the new 7 wonders of the world and it is one of the ancient Mayan temples. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4MhTfRTZS_0&feature=related Here is another picture of the temple http://www.ewallpapers.org/data/media/24/Ancient_Mayan_Ruins_Chichen_Itza_Mexico.jpg Chichen Itza was a regional power from about 600-1000 A.D. It grew into a major city around the time that another city, Tikal, started to decline. Chichen Itza was not governed by one single person which made it different than the other Mayan cities. It was a center of trade because of its location. The downfall of Chichen Itza was bloody and violent. One theory is that in 1221, a civil war broke out and the city started to decline. There is archeological evidence that the market and Temple of Warriors were burned around 1200. However, that theory is starting to die out. New data supports that the city fell around 1000, or two hundred years earlier.

- Jeff Goettel

__Mayan head shaping__

By: Ashleigh Crutcher

====Head shaping has been common in Mayan society and has been used in Eastern Countries. Close to 90% of the Mayan population had their heads artificially shaped. The head is flatten by taking two boards and pressing them against a newborns head. The two boards create a mouse trap like cradle which is held in place by bindings. The soft skulls of the newborns start to mold in to a cone like shape. After a few years the boards are removed. By Mayan tradition a coned head mean noble blood and raises the social status. An oval shaped head indicates a lower class standing Elongated heads or cone shaped heads are most commonly known with tribes in The Congo and Chad.====

[|Indian Jewellery] http://www.fashion-era.com/beauty_is_shape.htm http://www.indians.org/welker/maya.htm

Image Links:**
http://www.mesoweb.com/features/tiesler/03.html http://www.robertschoch.net/Eccentric%20Lives%20Peculiar%20Notions%20CMD%20CT.htm